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a. Verbs
Verbs (category symbol: V) are lexical morphemes or affixal formations which represent a process or a certain state within a particular time.
Under this definition, verbs can be divided as follows:
- free lexical morphemes: /bɒʃ/ باش, /dɒr/ دار, /bin/ بین
This group includes not only present participles but also verbs from foreign languages (like /jæʔni/ یعنی, see 14•1•c•b.), as well as verbs from Persian origins which have no participle as a constituent (like /ku/ کو, see also 14•1•c•b.).
- Simple affixal formations: /dæmid/ دمید, /bepuʃ/ بپوش, /koʃtæn/ کشتن
- Affixal formations whose stems are also affixal formations: /benevisæd/ بنویسد, /xæridæm/ خریدم
- Affixal formations with verb phrases as stems: /næmi-dɒnæm/ نمیدانم, /næmi-ræft/ نمیرفت
b. Verb Phrases
Verb phrase (category symbol: VP) is the genus for the language elements which represent a process or a certain state within a particular time. In Persian sentences, they fulfill the function of the predicates.
A verb phrase consists of at least one verb, and can have the following syntaxes in Persian:
- Simple verbs: /benevisid/ بنویسید, /oftɒdænd/ افتادند, /ɒværd/ آورد
- Compounds of two verb phrases with the pattern [VP[VPverb phrase] [VPverb phrase]]: /xɒhæm neveʃt/ خواهم نوشت, /oftɒdæ-i/ افتادهای, /ræftæ bɒʃæd/ رفته باشد
There are patterns which allow the constituents to be separated (see 14•1•d. indicative past progressive and indicative present progressive):
دارم نامه مینویسم.، داشت کمکم میافتاد.
- Compounds with the pattern [VP[Advproclitical adverb /mi-/ می] [VPverb phrase]]: /mi-nevisæd/ مینویسد, /mi-oftɒdæm/ میافتادم, /mi-ɒværd/ میآورد
Originally, the proclitical adverb /mi-/ می fulfilled the function of imperfective adverbial in Persian sentences:
و ما او را نهایتِ جسم نهادیم، که جسم بدو می سپری شود.
Biruni (10th and 11th Century AD)
کنون خورد باید میِ خوشگوار
که می بویِ مشک آید از جویبار
Ferdowsi (10th and 11th Century AD)
خور و پوش و بخشای و راحت رسان!
نگه می چه داری زِ بهرِ کسان؟!
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
Nevertheless, this adverb is usually grammaticalized and most speakers perceive it as a proclitical constituent in the conjugation ↓, to express the iteration.
- Compounds with the pattern [VP[VPverb phrase] [Advenclitical adverb /-ɒ/]].
The adverb enclitical adverb /-ɒ/ originally acted as an accentual adverbial. However, it has commonly been grammaticalized and most speakers perceive it as an enclitical constituent of a few verb phrases without expressing any emphasis:
گفتم: «گره نگشودهام زآن طرّه تا من بودهام»
گفتا: «منَش فرمودهام تا با تو طرّاری کند»
Hafez (14th Century AD)
گوییا باور نمیدارند روزِ داوری
کهاین همه قلب و دغل در کارِ داور میکنند
Hafez (14th Century AD)
- Compounds with the pattern [VP[Advverb particle ↓] [VPverb phrase]]: /bær neveʃt/ بر نوشت, /piʃ oftɒdænd/ پیش افتادند, /bær mi-ɒværæm/ بر میآورم
c. Grammatical Categories of Verb Phrases
Verb phrases (and therefore also simple verbs) have the following grammatical categories:
c•a. Common Categories
Grammatical categories which are relevant for all verb phrases (even if they do not function as predicates) are termed common categories in this website. These categories are also valid for non-finite verb forms:
- 13•1. Lexical Aspect of Verb Phrases
- 13•2. Transitivity of Verb Phrases
- 13•3. Copulativity of Verb Phrases
- 13•4. Voice of Verb Phrases
- 13•5. Polarity of Verb Phrases
c•b. Predicative Categories
Predicative categories are only relevant for verb phrases acting as predicates:
- 13•6. Number of Verb Phrases
- 13•7. Person of Verb Phrases
- 13•8. Tense of Verb Phrases
- 13•9. Grammatical Aspect of Verb Phrases
- 14. Mood of Verb Phrases
A syntactical modification in verb phrases which leads to a modification of their predicative categories is called conjugation (for example, the usage of verbal inflectional suffixes ↓).
d. Verbal Inflectional Suffixes
Inflectional suffixes are used in the conjugation to determine the predicative categories of verb phrases:
- In Persian, like many other Indo-European languages, perfect participles are conjugated by means of suppletive verbs, to express their person and number. Such constituents are termed conjugating constituents in this website:
Person and Number Suppletive Verb Example:
Indicative Pre-Present1st Person Singular /-æm/ ام /ræftæ-æm/ رفتهام 2nd Person Singular /-i/ (/-eː/) ای /ræftæ-i/ رفتهای 3rd Person Singular /-æst/ است /ræftæ æst/ رفته است 1st Person Plural /-im/ (/-eːm/) ایم /ræftæ-im/ رفتهایم 2nd Person Plural /-id/ (/-eːd/, /-eːt/) اید، ایت /ræftæ-id/, /ræftæ-eːt/ رفتهاید، رفتهایت 3rd Person Plural /-ænd/ اند /ræftæ-ænd/ رفتهاند In this case, the suppletive verb /-eːt/ ایت is obsolete and can only be noted in archaic idioms:
انگبین خواستهایت.
From the book “Ravnagh ol-Madjales”, collected by Omar Samarkandi (15th Century AD)
These suppletive verbs are developed to verbal inflectional suffixes by the grammaticalization, to also execute the same function by past and present participles:
- The highest extension of these verbal inflectional suffixes can be noted, if they conjugate present participles in the syntax of indicative present (= present inflectional suffixes):
Person and Number Present Inflectional Suffix Example:
(General) Indicative Present1st Person Singular /-æm/ /mi-zænæm/ میزنم 2nd Person Singular /-i/ (/-eː/) /mi-zæni/ میزنی 3rd Person Singular /-æd/ /mi-zænæd/ میزند 1st Person Plural /-im/ (/-eːm/) /mi-zænim/ میزنیم 2nd Person Plural /-id/ (/-eːd/, /-eːt/) /mi-zænid/, /meː-zæneːt/ میزنید، میزنیت 3rd Person Plural /-ænd/ /mi-zænænd/ میزنند As one can note, the suppletive verb /-æst/ است is exchanged by means of this grammaticalization to the present inflectional suffix /-æd/, but all other present inflectional suffixes have kept their pronunciation:
گر تو سری قدم شوم (1st person singular)، ور تو کفی علم شوم
ور بروی (2nd person singular) عدم شوم، بی تو به سر نمیشود (3rd person singular)
Rumi (13th Century AD)
ما نگوییم (1st person plural) بد و میل به ناحق نکنیم (1st person plural)
جامهیِ کس سیه و دلقِ خود ازرق نکنیم
Hafez (14th Century AD)
بمیرید (2nd person plural) ! بمیرید! وز این مرگ مترسید (2nd person plural) !
کهاز این خاک بر آیید (2nd person plural) سماوات بگیرید (2nd person plural)
Rumi (13th Century AD)
نخست مسافران شما خواهیت بود (2nd person plural).
From the book “Asrar Ottowhid” (12th Century AD)
پرِ جبریل را این جا بسوزند (3rd person plural)
بدآن تا کودکان آتش فروزند (3rd person plural)
Hafez (14th Century AD)
- Present participles are also conjugated by means of verbal inflectional suffixes in the syntax of imperative (= imperative inflectional suffixes):
Person and Number Imperative Inflectional Suffix Example:
Imperative1st Person Singular /-æm/ /benevisæm/ بنویسم 2nd Person Singular /-Ø/ /benevisØ/ بنویس 3rd Person Singular /-æd/ /benevisæd/ بنویسد 1st Person Plural /-im/ (/-eːm/) /benevisim/ بنویسیم 2nd Person Plural /-id/ (/-eːd/, /-eːt/) /benevisid/, /beneviseːt/ بنویسید، بنویسیت 3rd Person Plural /-ænd/ /benevisænd/ بنویسند It is notable here that the imperative inflectional suffix for the 2nd person singular is a zero morpheme. All other imperative inflectional suffixes correspond with the present inflectional suffixes:
بنشینم (1st person singular) و صبر پیش گیرم (1st person singular) !
دنبالهیِ کارِ خویش گیرم!
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
بخور (2nd person singular) تا توانی به بازویِ خویش!
که سعیت بود در ترازویِ خویش
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
یکی تیشه بگیرید (2nd person plural) پیِ حفرهیِ زندان!
چو زندان بشکستید همه شاه و امیرید
Rumi (13th Century AD)
آن گاه طعام بیاریت (2nd person plural) … و بگوییت (2nd person plural) تا بیایند!
Onsor ol-Moali (11th Century AD)
- Verbal inflectional suffixes conjugating present participles in the syntax of optative (= optative inflectional suffixes) show phonological deviations to other verbal inflectional suffixes:
Person and Number Optative Inflectional Suffix Example:
Optative1st Person Singular /-ɒm/ /bebinɒm/ ببینام 2nd Person Singular /-i/ (/-eː/) /bebini/ ببینی 3rd Person Singular /-ɒd/ /bebinɒd/ ببیناد چترِ ظفرت نهان مبینام (1st person singular) !
بی رایتِ تو جهان مبینام!
Khaqani (12th Century AD)
در این ره گرمرو میباش! لیک از رویِ نادانی
نگر مندیشی (2nd person singular) آ هرگز که این ره را کران بینی!
Sanai (11th and 12th Century AD)
بماناد (3rd person singular) دستی که انگور چید!
مریزاد (3rd person singular) پایی که در هم فشرد!
Hafez (14th Century AD)
- On the other hand, verbal inflectional suffixes used for past participles have acquired no phonological modification by mean of this grammaticalization (= past inflectional suffixes). The only exception is the past inflectional suffix for the 3rd person singular, which is replaced by a zero morpheme:
Person and Number Past Inflectional Suffix Example:
Indicative past perfective1st Person Singular /-æm/ /ræftæm/ رفتم 2nd Person Singular /-i/ (/-eː/) /ræfti/ رفتی 3rd Person Singular /-Ø/ /ræftØ/ رفت 1st Person Plural /-im/ (/-eːm/) /ræftim/ رفتیم 2nd Person Plural /-id/ (/-eːd/, /-eːt/) /ræftid/, /ræfteːt/ رفتید، رفتیت 3rd Person Plural /-ænd/ /ræftænd/ رفتند رستم (1st person singular) از این شعر و غزل، ای شه و سلطانِ ازل!
مفتعلٌ مفتعلٌ مفتعلٌ کشت (3rd person singular) مرا
Rumi (13th Century AD)
صائب! سرِ زلفِ سخن از دخلِ حسودان
آشفته نشد (3rd person singular) تا تو در این سلسله بودی (2nd person singular)
Saeb Tabrizi (17th Century AD)
رزقِ ما بیحاصلان از مزرعِ سبزِ فلک
گر همه یک دانه بود (3rd person singular) از بهرِ فردا کاشتیم (1st person plural)
Saeb Tabrizi (17th Century AD)
بمیرید! بمیرید! در این عشق بمیرید!
در این عشق چو مردید (2nd person plural) همه روحپذیرید
Rumi (13th Century AD)
شما زر و سیم بر ما میفشاندیت (2nd person plural) و جانها از بهرِ ما نثار میکردیت (2nd person plural).
Onsor ol-Moali (11th Century AD)
در کار شدند (3rd person plural) و میِ چون زنگ کشیدند (3rd person plural)
بس عاشقِ دلسوخته را کار نهادند (3rd person plural)
Attar Nishapuri (12th and 13th Century AD)
- The highest extension of these verbal inflectional suffixes can be noted, if they conjugate present participles in the syntax of indicative present (= present inflectional suffixes):
- In archaic idioms, the verbal inflectional suffix /-i/ is used to indicate following grammatical subcategories:
- The potential mood:
تو را سلامت باد ای گلِ بهار و بهشت!
که سویِ قبلهیِ رویت نماز خوانندی (3rd person plural)
Shahid Balkhi (9th and 10th Century AD)
کاشکی قیمتِ انفاس بدانندی (3rd person plural) خلق
تا دمی چند که ماندهست غنیمت شمرند
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
- The subjunctive mood:
به جانِ او که گرم دسترس به جان بودی (3rd person singular)
کمینه پیشکشِ بندگانش آن بودی
Hafez (14th Century AD)
گر آنها که میگفتمی کردمی (1st person singular)
نکوسیرت و پارسا بودمی (1st person singular)
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
- The iterative or the habitual grammatical aspect:
من از ورع می و مطرب ندیدمی (1st person singular) زین پیش
هوایِ مغبچگانم در این و آن انداخت
Hafez (14th Century AD)
هر بیدقی که براندی (3rd person singular) به دفعِ آن بکوشیدمی (1st person singular) و هر شاهی که بخواندی (3rd person singular) به فرزین بپوشیدمی (1st person singular).
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
آن چه فرمودی (3rd person singular) نبشتمی (1st person singular) و کارها میبراندمی (1st person singular).
Abolfazl Beyhaqi (10th and 11th Century AD)
In this case, the allomorph [-id] can also be noted:
چون بر باطلی متّفق شدندید (3rd person singular) و بر تغییر و تبدیل اجتماع کردندید (3rd person singular) ربّ العزّه پیامبری به ایشان فرستادی.
Maibodi (12th Century AD)
It is notable that both the verbal inflectional affix /-i/ (for the 2nd person singular) and also the inflectional affix /-æm/ (for the 1st person singular) is deleted in front of this verbal inflectional affix:
اگر من نرفتی (1st person singular) به مازندران
به گردن برآورده گرزِ گران
Ferdowsi (10th and 11th Century AD)
همه روز ماکان متأسّف بود که: «من طاهر بدیدی (1st person singular) تا خدمتی کردمی.»
Shams Ghais Razi (12th and 13th Century AD)
- The potential mood:
- Besides the suppletive verbs, possessive pronouns (if also a smaller amount) can also be grammaticalized to verbal inflectional suffixes in Persian.
A prominent example in archaic idioms which has survived in the Tehran idiom is the usage of the grammaticalized possessive pronoun in the 3rd person singular as a past inflectional suffix:
گرانمایه دستور گفتش (3rd person singular) به شاه:
«نبایدت رفتن به آن رزمگاه»
Ferdowsi (10th and 11th Century AD)
نهان گشت و گیتی بر او شد سیاه
سپردش (3rd person singular) به ضحّاک تخت و کلاه
Ferdowsi (10th and 11th Century AD)
It is interesting that the grammaticalized possessive pronoun in the 3rd person plural can be used in some archaic idioms as well as in the Esfahan idiom, in addition to the past inflectional suffix /-ænd/:
برفتند شایسته مردانِ کار
ببستندشان (3rd person plural) در میانها اِزار
Ferdowsi (10th and 11th Century AD)
One can also note in archaic idioms that grammaticalized possessive pronouns in the plural can appear in the syntax of subjunctive mood (= subjunctive inflectional suffixes):
اگر شایستی، همه به یک بار برفتمانی (1st person plural) تا زود به خدمتِ شاه رسیدمانی (1st person plural) و این بندیان را با خود ببردیمی.
From the book “Samak Ayyar” of Faramarz Khodadad (12th Century AD)
اگر بایستی، چون شما را ناسپاسی معلوم شد، غوغا نکردتانی (3rd person plural).
Nezami Gandjavi (12th and 13th Century AD)
e. Verb Particles
In Indo-European languages, a verb particle is an adverb which appears as constituent in the syntax of verb phrases, modifying their meaning. It is commonly assumed that verb particles are generated by means of grammaticalization (mainly of adpositions and adverbials).
The following adverbs are used in Persian as verb particles:
- /bɒz/ باز:
زِ من باز گشتند یکسر سپاه
ندیدند گفتی مرا جز به راه
Ferdowsi (10th and 11th Century AD)
- /bær/ بر:
که گر روزی مرادش بر نیاری
دو سد چندان عیوبت بر شمارد
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
- /pæs/ پس: /pæs ændɒxtæn/ پس انداختن, /pæs oftɒdæn/ پس افتادن.
- /piʃ/ پیش:
و بیرونِ این کارهایِ دیگر پیش افتد و همه فرائضست.
Abolfazl Beyhaqi (10th and 11th Century AD)
- /dær/ در and in archaic idioms /ændær/ اندر:
به دل اندر عقلی نهاد تا اندر یابند و حقّ از باطل بشناسند.
Balami (10th Century AD)
هرگز نبردهام به خراباتِ عشق راه
امروزم آرزویِ تو در داد ساغری
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
- /ru/ رو: /ru kærdæn/ رو کردن, /ru ɒmædæn/ رو آمدن.
- /sær/ سر:
شکوه از خسّتِ اربابِ دغل سر نکنی!
گنج نبود هنر این طایفه را در اعداد
Saeb Tabrizi (17th Century AD)
- /færɒ/ فرا and in archaic idioms /hɒ/ ها (see the article of Dr. Ali Ashraf Sadeghi in مجلهء زبانشناسی, 33rd issue, page 4 about the verb particle /hɒ/ ها: /hɒ gereftæn/ ها گرفتن, /hɒ næhɒdæn/ ها نهادن):
اتباعِ خوارزمشاه را به تیغِ انتقام فرا گرفتند و بعضی را بکشتند.
From the translation of the book “Tarikh Yamini” (13th Century AD)
سیمرغوار گوشهنشینم، نه چون مگس
بنشینم از حریصی هر جا که فا رسم
Kamaloddin Esmail (12th and 13th Century AD)
- /færɒz/ فراز:
من او را به دامت فراز آورم
سخنهایِ چرب و دراز آورم
Ferdowsi (10th and 11th Century AD)
- /foru/ فرو and in archaic idioms /fɒ/ فا and /hoː/ هو (see the article of Dr. Ali Ashraf Sadeghi in مجلهء زبانشناسی, 33rd issue, page 5, regarding the Verb Particle /hoː/ هو: /hoː ʃodæn/ هو شدن, /hoː neʃæstæn/ هو نشستن):
یکی روبهی دید بیدست و پای
فرو ماند در لطف و صنعِ خدای
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
- /negæh/ نگه and /negɒh/ نگاه:
نگه دار از آمیزگارِ بدش!
که بدبخت و بَدرَه کند چون خودش
Saadi (12th and 13th Century AD)
خدای دادت ملک و خدایِ عزّ و جلّ
نگاه دارد ملکِ تو همچُنان که بداد
Masud Saad Salman (11th and 12th Century AD)
- /vɒ/ وا:
باشد که خداوند را بر این وا داشته باشند.
Abolfazl Beyhaqi (10th and 11th Century AD)
- /vær/ ور: /vær ɒmædæn/ ور آمدن, /vær pæridæn/ ور پریدن.
- /hæm/ هم:
هر طور بود هم کشیدم و تنم کردم.
Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda (19th and 20th Century AD)
As the examples above highlight, the verb particle is normally positioned ahead of the verbal phrase:
او دیگر باز نمیگردد.
The following points are notable:
- The verb particle can be positioned at the end of the sentence, owing to metrical conformation:
از کارِ خیر عزمِ تو هرگز نگشت باز
هرگز زِ راه باز نگشتهست هیچ تیر
Manuchehri (10th and 11th Century AD)
- Possessive pronouns can be attached (as objects) to verb particles (see 7•2•b.):
سربازان با دستِ بسته به زندان بازش گرداندند
